NAME : INDRI KRISTIA
CLASS : IV.B
SUBJECT : INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE
LECTURER: SUPRIYADI, M.Pd.
A. Definition of Poetry
Poetry is an imaginative awareness of experience
expressed through meaning, sound, and rhythmic language choices so as to evoke
an emotional response. Poetry has been known to employ meter and rhyme, but
this is by no means necessary. Poetry is an ancient form that has gone through
numerous and drastic reinvention over time. The very nature of poetry as an
authentic and individual mode of expression makes it nearly impossible to
define.
There are as many definitions of
poetry as there are poets. Wordsworth defined poetry as "the spontaneous
overflow of powerful feelings;" Emily Dickinson said, "If I read a
book and it makes my body so cold no fire ever can warm me, I know that is
poetry;" and Dylan Thomas defined poetry this way: "Poetry is what
makes me laugh or cry or yawn, what makes my toenails twinkle, what makes me
want to do this or that or nothing."
Poetry is a lot of things to a lot of people. Homer's epic, The Odyssey
, described the wanderings of the adventurer, Odysseus, and has been called the
greatest story ever told. During the English Renaissance, dramatic poets like
John Milton, Christopher Marlowe, and of course Shakespeare gave us enough to
fill textbooks, lecture halls, and universities. Poems from the romantic period
include Goethe's.
On the purpose:
One may use prose to narrate, describe, argue, or define. There are equally
numerous reasons for writing poetry. But poetry, unlike prose, often has an
underlying and over-arching purpose that goes beyond the literal. Poetry is
evocative. It typically evokes in the reader an intense emotion: joy, sorrow,
anger, catharsis, love... Alternatively, poetry has the ability to surprise the
reader with an Ah Ha! Experience -- revelation, insight, further understanding
of elemental truth and beauty. Like Keats said:
"Beauty is truth. Truth, beauty.
That is all ye know on Earth and all ye need to know."
How's that? Do we have a definition yet?
Poetry is artistically rendering words in such a way as to evoke intense
emotion or an Ah Ha! experience from the reader.
Pretty unsatisfying, huh? Kind of leaves you feeling cheap, dirty, all hollow
and empty inside like Chinese food.
Don't do this. Don't shackle poetry with your definitions. Poetry is not a
frail and cerebral old woman, you know. Poetry is stronger than you think.
Poetry is imagination and will break those chains faster than you can say
"Harlem Renaissance."
To borrow a phrase, poetry is a riddle wrapped in an enigma swathed in a
cardigan sweater... or something like that. It doesn't like your definitions
and will shirk them at every turn. If you really want to know what poetry is,
read it. Read it carefully. Pay attention. Read it out loud. Now read it again.
There's your definition of poetry. Because defining poetry is like grasping at
the wind - once you catch it, it's no longer wind.
POETRY ASSUMPTIONS
Readers
of poetry often bring with them many related assumptions:
- That a poem is to be read for
its "message,"
- That this message is
"hidden" in the poem,
- The message is to be found by
treating the words as symbols which naturally do not mean what they say
but stand for something else,
- You have to decipher every
single word to appreciate and enjoy the poem.
There
are no easy ways to dispel these biases. Poetry is difficult because very often
its language is indirect. But so is experience - those things we think, feel,
and do. The lazy reader wants to be told things and usually avoids poetry
because it demands commitment and energy. Moreover, much of what poetry has to
offer is not in the form of hidden meanings. Many poets like to
"play" with the sound of language or offer an emotional insight by
describing what they see in highly descriptive language. In fact, there can
many different ways to enjoy poetry; this reflects the many different styles
and objectives of poets themselves. For an overview of the many ways to read a
poem. Finally, if you are the type to give up when something is unclear, just
relax! Like we just said, there can be many different approaches to examining
poetry; often these approaches (like looking for certain poetic devices or
examining the meaning of a specific phrase) do not require a complete and
exhaustive analysis of a poem. So, enjoy what you do understand!
FIRST APPROACHES
Read
the poem (many students neglect this step). Identify the speaker and the
situation. Feel free to read it more than once! Read the sentences literally.
Use your prose reading skills to clarify what the poem is about.Read each line
separately, noting unusual words and associations. Look up words you are unsure
of and struggle with word associations that may not seem logical to you.Note
any changes in the form of the poem that might a shift in point of view. Study
the structure of the poem, including its rhyme and rhythm (if any). Re-read the
poem slowly, thinking about what message and emotion the poem communicates to
you.
An important method of analyzing a
poem is to look at the stanza structure or style of a poem. Generally speaking,
structure has to do with the overall organization of lines and/or the
conventional patterns of sound. Again, many modern poems may not have any
identifiable structure (i.e. they are free verse), so don't panic if you can't
find it!
STANZAS: Stanzas are a series of lines grouped together and separated by
an empty line from other stanzas. They are the equivalent of a paragraph in an
essay. One way to identify a stanza is to count the number of lines. Thus:
- couplet (2 lines)
- tercet (3 lines)
- quatrain (4 lines)
- cinquain (5 lines)
- sestet (6
lines) (sometimes it's called a sexain)
- septet (7 lines)
- octave (8 lines)
FORM: A poem may or may not have a
specific number of lines, rhyme scheme and/or metrical pattern, but it can
still be labeled according to its form or style. Here are the three most
common types of poems according to form:
1. Lyric Poetry:
It is any poem with one speaker (not necessarily the poet) who expresses strong
thoughts and feelings. Most poems, especially modern ones, are lyric poems.
2. Narrative Poem: It is a poem that tells a story; its
structure resembles the plot line of a story [i.e. the introduction of conflict
and characters, rising action, climax and the denouement].
3. Descriptive Poem: It is a poem
that describes the world that surrounds the speaker. It uses elaborate
imagery and adjectives. While emotional, it is more "outward-focused"
than lyric poetry, which is more personal and introspective.
In a sense, almost all poems,
whether they have consistent patterns of sound and/or structure, or are free
verse, are in one of the three categories above. Or, of course, they may be a
combination of 2 or 3 of the above styles! Here are some more types of poems
that are subtypes of the three styles above:
Ode: It is usually a lyric poem
of moderate length, with a serious subject, an elevated style, and an elaborate
stanza pattern.
Elegy: It is a lyric poem that
mourns the dead. [It's not to be confused with a eulogy.]It
has no set metric or stanzaic pattern, but it usually begins by reminiscing
about the dead person, then laments the reason for the death, and then resolves
the grief by concluding that death leads to immortality. It often uses
"apostrophe" (calling out to the dead person) as a literary
technique. It can have a fairly formal style, and sound similar to an ode.
Sonnet: It is a lyric poem consisting
of 14 lines and, in the English version, is
usually written in iambic pentameter. There are two basic kinds of sonnets: the
Italian (or Petrarchan) sonnet and the Shakespearean (or Elizabethan/English)
sonnet. The Italian/Petrarchan sonnet is named after Petrarch, an Italian
Renaissance poet. The Petrarchan sonnet consists of an octave (eight lines) and
a sestet (six lines). The Shakespearean sonnet consists of three quatrains
(four lines each) and a concluding couplet (two lines). The Petrarchan sonnet
tends to divide the thought into two parts (argument and conclusion); the
Shakespearean, into four (the final couplet is the summary).
Ballad: It is a narrative poem that
has a musical rhythm and can be sung. A ballad is usually organized into
quatrains or cinquains, has a simple rhythm structure, and tells the tales of
ordinary people.
Epic: It is a long narrative poem in
elevated style recounting the deeds of a legendary or historical
hero.
Qualities of an Epic Poem:
·
narrative
poem of great scope; dealing with the founding of a nation or some other heroic
theme requires a dignified theme requires an organic unity requires orderly
progress of the action always has a heroic figure or figures involves
supernatural forces
·
written
in deliberately ceremonial style
Other
types of poems include:
Haiku: It has an unrhymed verse
form having three lines(a tercet) and usually 5,7,5 syllables,
respectively. It's usually considered a lyric poem
Limerick: It has a very structured poem,
usually humorous & composed of five lines
(a cinquain), in an aabba rhyming pattern; beat must be anapestic
(weak, weak, strong) with 3 feet in lines 1, 2, & 5 and 2 feet in lines 3
& 4. It's usually a narrative poem based upon a short and often ribald
anecdote.
SOUND PATTERNS
Three other elements of poetry are rhyme
scheme, meter (ie. regular rhythm) and word sounds (like
alliteration). These are sometimes collectively called sound play
because they take advantage of the performative, spoken nature of poetry.
Rhyme is the repetition of similar
sounds. In poetry, the most common kind of rhyme is the end rhyme, which
occurs at the end of two or more lines. It is usually identified with lower
case letters, and a new letter is used to identify each new end sound. Take a
look at the rhyme scheme for the following poem :
I saw a fairy in the wood,
He was dressed all in green.
He drew his sword while I just stood,
And realized I'd been seen.
The rhyme scheme of the poem is abab.
.
Internal rhyme occurs in the middle of a line, as in these lines from
Coleridge, "In mist or cloud, on
mast or shroud" or "Whiles all
the night through fog-smoke white" ("The Ancient Mariner").
Remember that most modern poems do not have rhyme
RHYTHM AND METER
Meter: the systematic regularity in rhythm; this systematic
rhythm (or sound pattern) is usually identified by examining the type of
"foot" and
the number of feet.
1. Poetic Foot: The traditional line of metered poetry contains a number of
rhythmical units, which are called feet. The feet in a line are
distinguished as a recurring pattern of two or three syllables
("apple" has 2 syllables, "banana" has 3 syllables, etc.).
The pattern, or foot, is designated according to the number of syllables
contained, and the relationship in each foot between the strong and weak syllables.Thus:
__ = a stressed (or strong, or LOUD) syllable
U = an unstressed (or weak, or quiet) syllable
2. The Number of Feet: The second part of
meter is the number of feet contained in a line.
Thus:
one foot=monometer
two feet=dimeter
three feet=trimeter
four feet=tetrameter
five feet=pentameter
six feet=hexameter (when hexameter is in iambic rhythm, it is called an
alexandrine)
Poems with an identifiable meter are
therefore identified by the type of feet (e.g. iambic) and the number of feet
in a line (e.g. pentameter). The following line is iambic pentameter because it
(1) has five feet [pentameter], and (2) each foot has two syllables with
the stress on the second syllable [iambic].
That time | of year |
thou mayst | in me | behold
Thus, you will hear meter identified
as iambic pentameter, trochaic tetrameter, and so on.
3. Irregularity: Many metered poems in English avoid perfectly regular
rhythm because it is monotonous. Irregularities in rhythm add interest and
emphasis to the lines. In this line:
The first foot substitutes a trochee for an iamb. Thus, the
basic iambic pentameter is varied with the opening trochee.
4. Blank Verse:
Any poetry that does have a set
metrical pattern (usually iambic pentameter), but does not
have rhyme, is blank verse. Shakespeare
frequently used unrhymed iambic pentameter in his plays; his works are an early
example of blank verse.
5. Free Verse:
Most modern poetry no longer follows strict rules of meter or rhyme,
especially throughout an entire poem. Free verse, frankly, has no rules about
meter or rhyme whatsoever! [In other words, blank verse has
rhythm, but no rhyme, while free verse has neither rhythm nor
rhyme.] So, you may find it difficult to find regular iambic pentameter in a
modern poem, though you might find it in particular lines. Modern poets do like
to throw in the occasional line or phrase of metered poetry, particularly if
they’re trying to create a certain effect. Free verse can also apply to a lack
of a formal verse structure.
D. MEANING and POETRY
I said earlier that poetry is not
always about hidden or indirect meanings (sometimes called meaning play).
Nevertheless, if often is a major part of poetry, so here some of the important
things to remember:
CONCRETENESS and PARTICULARITY
In general, poetry deals with
particular things in concrete language, since our emotions most readily respond
to these things. From the poem's particular situation, the reader may then
generalize; the generalities arise by implication from the particular. In other
words, a poem is most often concrete and particular; the "message,"
if there is any, is general and abstract; it's implied by the images.
Images, in turn, suggest meanings
beyond the mere identity of the specific object. Poetry "plays" with
meaning when it identifies resemblances or makes comparisons between things;
common examples of this "figurative" comparison include:
- ticking of clock = mortality
- hardness of steel = determination
- white = peace or purity
Such terms as connotation, simile,
metaphor, allegory, and symbol are aspects of this comparison. Such expressions
are generally called figurative or metaphorical language.
DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION
Word meanings are not only
restricted to dictionary meanings. The full meaning of a word includes both the
dictionary definition and the special meanings and associations a word takes in
a given phrase or expression. For example, a tiger is a carnivorous animal of
the cat family. This is the literal or denotative
meaning. But we have certain associations with the word: sinuous movement,
jungle violence, and aggression. These are the suggestive, figurative or connotative meanings.
FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE DEVICES
- Simile
is the rhetorical term used to designate the most elementary form of
resemblances: most similes are introduced by "like" or
"as." These comparisons are usually between dissimilar
situations or objects that have something in common, such as "My love
is like a red, red rose."
- A metaphor leaves out "like" or
"as" and implies a direct comparison between objects or
situations. "All flesh is grass." For more on metaphor,
click here.
- Synecdoche
is a form of metaphor, which in mentioning an important (and attached)
part signifies the whole (e.g. "hands" for labour).
- Metonymy
is similar to synecdoche; it's a form of metaphor allowing an object
closely associated (but unattached) with a object or situation to
stand for the thing itself (e.g. the crown or throne for a king or the
bench for the judicial system).
- A symbol is like a simile or metaphor with the
first term left out. "My love is like a red, red rose" is a
simile. If, through persistent identification of the rose with the beloved
woman, we may come to associate the rose with her and her particular
virtues. At this point, the rose would become a symbol.
- Allegory
can be defined as a one to one correspondence between a series of abstract
ideas and a series of images or pictures presented in the form of a story
or a narrative. For example, George Orwell's Animal Farm is an
extended allegory that represents the Russian Revolution through a fable
of a farm and its rebellious animals.
- Personification
occurs when you treat abstractions or inanimate objects as human, that is,
giving them human attributes, powers, or feelings (e.g., "nature
wept" or "the wind whispered many truths to me").
- Irony
takes many forms. Most basically, irony is a figure of speech in which
actual intent is expressed through words that carry the opposite meaning.
- Paradox: usually a literal contradiction of terms or
situations
- Situational Irony: an unmailed letter
- Dramatic Irony: audience has more information or
greater perspective than the characters
- Verbal Irony: saying one thing but meaning another
- Overstatement (hyperbole)
- Understatement (meiosis)
- Sarcasm
Irony may be a positive or negative
force. It is most valuable as a mode of perception that assists the poet to see
around and behind opposed attitudes, and to see the often conflicting
interpretations that come from our examination of life.
E. POETRY AS A LANGUAGE OF INDIRECTION
Thus,
if we recognize that much of the essential quality of our experience is more
complex than a simple denotative statement can describe, then we must recognize
the value of the poet's need to search for a language agile enough to capture
the complexity of that experience. Consider this four-line stanza:
O Western wind, when wilt thou blow
That the small rain down can rain?
Christ, that my love were in my arms,
And I in my bed again!
The
center of the poem is the lover's desire to be reunited with his beloved (lines
3 and 4). But the full meaning of the poem depends on the first two lines also.
Obviously, the lover associates his grief with the wind and rain, but the poet
leaves to implication, to indirection, just how the lover's situation and the
wind and rain are related. We note that they are related in several ways: the
need for experiencing and manifesting love is an inherent need, like nature's
need for rain; in a word, love, like the wind and rain, is natural. Secondly,
the lover is living in a kind of drought or arid state that can only be slaked
by the soothing presence of the beloved. Thirdly, the rising of the wind and
the coming of the rain can neither be controlled nor foretold exactly, and
human affairs, like the lover's predicament, are subject to the same sort of
chance.
Undoubtedly,
too, there are associations with specific words, like "Western" or
"small rain" that the reader is only half aware of but which
nonetheless contribute to meaning. These associations or connotations afford a
few indirections that enrich the entire poem. For example, "small
rain" at once describes the kind of rain that the lover wants to fall and
suggests the joy and peace of lover's tears, and "small" alone might
suggest the daintiness or femininity of the beloved.
